This review consists of four sections: Introduction, method, results, and discussion. Each section will be presented sistematically.
Introduction
This study which is conducted in Foshan, a Southern city in mainland China, mainly focuses on the nature of institutionalised power and social factors influencing the differential level of linguistic politeness in verbal interaction. Three relative weights of social elements would be examined in this analysis: official rank, age and gender. These important elements subsequently are analysed in relation to the power the speakers have and how these factors impact the language use in conversation. The researcher also examines the Brown and Levinson’s theory of the positive-negative politeness in Chinese official settings. In this review, I will also include the method, results, and the discussion sections to help reader(s) get clearer ideas of this research review.
It should be taken into account that being conscious of social status/position, age and gender in Chinese’s hierarchical society is important as this understanding significantly contributes to how we should behave socially appropriately in a given situation. In the sense of being polite, we should therefore recognise our interlocutor’s role particularly in institutionalised power. In Chinese culture as this investigation shows, we are expected to display deference or respect to a superior. On the other hand, it is generally agreed that a superior isn’t limited to use politeness to his or her subordinate.
As this body of research specifically investigates the area of linguistic politeness, the researcher presents the theoretical framework of the related study in the introduction section. She draws from the influential theory of politeness rules and models proposed by Lakoff (1973), Brown and Levinson (1987) in her analysis. So, in this review, I also articulate the applied politeness theories proposed by Lakoff, Brown and Levinson.
Lakoff (1979 cited in Pan, 1995. P. 464) firmly believes that conversation in social interaction is governed by linguistic rules. Accordingly, in addition to following the grammatical rules, we also need to follow the pragmatic aspect of language use in daily interchange in a given situation. He, thus, suggests the following three rules of politeness.
1. Don’t impose (distance)
2. Give options (deference)
3. Be friendly (camaraderie)
However, he contends that these proposed rules of pragmatics aren’t based on a hierarchical order. Those points are continuum with Gricean maxims . Therefore, he puts a greater emphasis on two aspects of the situation and its purpose. These refer to whether we want to exchange information or to seek social relationship.
Furthermore, Pan also uses the Brown and Levinson’s models of politeness in her analysis. She states that the concept of face is the core idea of Brown and Levinson’s linguistic politeness models. It is assumed that humans have two kinds of face: positive (the want to be desirable by others) and negative face (the want not to be impinged or imposed by others’ actions). Accordingly, face is vulnerable to be threatened and politeness strategies are considered as a tool to reduce the imposition of face threatening actions. In other words, linguistic politeness functions to save person’s face and/or to preserve human’s face from being lost. Brown and Levinson classify the models of politeness as follows:
1. Bald-on-record (the direct way of saying things)
2. Positive politeness (the expression of solidarity)
3. Negative politeness (the expression of restraint); and
4. Off-record politeness (the avoidance of unequivocal impositions)
By the notion of the universality of the concept of face, however, Brown and Levinson argue that it is subject to cultural elaboration. Meaning, the different culture may have different ways in considering others.
The following section will present the method applied in data collection conducted by the author.
Method
The main concern of this investigation is about the relationship between power and linguistic politeness in hierarchical social structure. The author collected the data in 2005 in Foshan, a southern city in mainland China. The data consisted of four recording whole speech event in government official meetings. The purpose was to assess the most dominating social elements, official rank, age and gender, associated with politeness use in institutionalised power and test the Brown and Levinson’s theory in term of positive and negative politeness models.
Results
In this section, I will present the data related to the main focus of the analysis conducted by Pan. In her hypothesis, she argues that social factors: official rank, age and gender have a great impact on politeness use in Chinese official settings. Institutionalised power, however, overrides the factors of age and gender. Secondly, she also questions the Brown and Levinson’s positive and negative politeness strategies generally perceived in the West concept.
To test how those social factors mentioned above are linked to different use of politeness strategies in Chinese culture, the researcher centres her investigation on three discrete kinds of speech acts: directives, management of conflict talk and decision-making process. So I will present the observed data in this review revealed by the author from each case to indicate the great impact of social factors to power. Moreover, the differences between positive and negative politeness in the West and Chinese settings will be also presented.
Pan’s investigation shows that three social factors mentioned above play a significant role in the use of politeness strategies. The findings indicate that different levels of age and different gender have a considerable impact on the use of politeness strategies. However, according to Pan, official rank is the most dominating factor in this context. In other words, one’s position in Chinese hierarchical society, no matter one’s age and gender intrinsically determines the expected behaviour in interaction. This situation indeed leads to different linguistic usage between the interlocutors.
Regarding the directives, the researcher reveals the distinct use of politeness between a supervisor and a subordinate. Accordingly, the superior uses more frequent bare imperatives than his/her subordinate. This can be seen from the fact that the supervisor tends to issue the bald-on-record politeness strategy when they are interacting with his or her colleagues whose official rank is lower compared to a supervisor’s position. The use of polite hedges is only displayed when they are speaking to their superior or equal colleagues.
This asymmetrical communication indeed can be found in the recorded conversation between Yin (age 28) as a deputy secretary and Lem (age 33) as of his subordinate. The conversational interchange has been literally translated from Cantonese into English.
Yim: Hey, ah, Lem Fong, call Cungzei and ask him if he’s got the car back today.
Lem: Eh, eh.
From this example, we can see the directive without any polite hedges or modality markers given by Yin to Lem even though Yin is younger than Lem in term of age. We can also understand this from how Yim addresses Lem with his full name rather a more formal or respectful tittle such as “Mr. Lem”. These are the apparent examples of the heavy influence of official rank in Chinese institutionalised power.
The other speech act analysed by the author is about management of conflict talk. Verbal conflict, like directives, is linked to the social variables such as power/status hierarchy. It can be seen from the way how opposition is expressed. Accordingly, higher ranking, people are more direct in signalling their opposition. However, the lower in rank, they tend to stay away from direct confrontation. The subordinate’s tendency to mitigate an imposition is to display his or her deferential behaviour toward the addressee in a higher power position.
The author exemplified the participants’ discussion to purchase the prize winners’ award in a current events contest proudly sponsored by a municipal youth league committee. Five participants take part in this discussion: Liu (the highest in rank, Fan (the deputy secretary), Tai, Lili (the only female in the discussion) and Rong (the rest of three are equal). The following excerpts have been selected to illustrate the findings.
Fan: let’s buy photo albums
Tai: (We) can also buy seven or eight dollar ones, if it’s..
Liu: Not necessarily those. But they’re better than four or five dollar ones. Anyway, seven dollars is still cheap.
Tai: Well, buy some New Year’s cards.
Liu: That’s no good.
Lili: My god! That’s only one dollar each. Those New Year’s cards are really ugly, one dollar…
Tai: Well, buy some New Year’s cards
Liu: That’s no good.
Lily: My god! That’s one dollar each. Those New Year’s card are really ugly, one dollar..
Liu: That’s no good.
…………..
Tai: Buy some kitties then. Six dollars per pair
Fan: What’s the use of kitties?
Fan: Yeach, but what’s the use?
…………..
Fan: If (we) have to buy something, buy some desk calendars then
…………..
Lili: Lots of people already have desk calendars, y’know. Many people send desk calendars to each other (as gifts). Then, what’s the use of having so many (calendars)? People have too many wall calendars and desk calendars.
The transcript conversation above indicates how the discussion and opposition unfold. According to the author, there are four ways of stating opposition in this conflict talk. Firstly, giving direct opposition to deny the previous statement or suggestion by employing negative expressions of “m hei” (no good). Secondly, challenging the previous suggestion by displaying doubt. Subsequently, reasoning without directly stating one’s position. Finally, providing alternative instead of overtly disagreeing is the other way in this context.
The last speech act examined by the author is about the decision-making process. The main point of this idea indicates that the decision making process inevitably involves the speakers’ position in the rank hierarchy. The author finds that the most powerful person in the group tends to be the first person in initiating and finalising the decision. This point indeed determines the linguistic choices and in this analysis is reflected in the use of bald-on-record face strategies in doing so.
Another interesting point the author suggests is when the superior isn’t always the decision maker within the conflicting issue. Her study shows that the power hierarchy among the participants is still indicated by the decision-making process. The participants take a sequence of steps to come to the final decision. The initial attempt for a decision could be made and other participants immediately either rephrase or repeat what is said before. Then other participants express in chorus to state their agreement. In other words, the awareness of rank position among interlocutors dominates the linguistic choices in a hierarchical scale.
In relation to positive and negative politeness suggested by Brown and Levinson, the author’s findings are in contrary with Brown and Levinson’s models. The cultural orientation between collectivism (Chinese) and individualism (Western) underlines the basic difference between positive and negative politeness in these two varied cultures. That is In Chinese culture, the speaker has to behave based on the social role in a given situation. It means a superior should act like a superior and otherwise, a subordinate should act in line with his/her social status.
The basic difference in term of positive and negative politeness perceived in the West and the Chinese culture is different culture among them. According to the author, this difference is based on the different culture between individualism and collectivism. As cited by Ide (1989), the author assumes that individualism is the basis of all interaction in the West. So it is easy to identify “face” as the key interaction. In contrary with West culture, collectivism is the basis for interaction. It is regarded that the speaker’s position in society is the basis in interaction.
Pan argues that it is not because people respect the negative face of the other that they show deference but rather because their social position requires them to behave likely to those who have power over them. Thus, the desire to be independent and be unimpeded in one’s actions is almost alien to Chinese. So the imposition is not considered to be face-threatening act when it is done by a superior over a subordinate. However, showing deference to superior enhances the positive face because it justifies the subordinate’s behaviour toward the superior.
Discussion
The general findings of this analysis conducted by Pan indicate that social elements, official rank, age and gender play a significant role and in turn, determine the linguistic choices in communication. Even though it is true that the level of age and different gender contribute to its differences, official rank, however, is the most dominating aspect in linguistic behaviour. A superior for instance tends to use bald-on-record strategies in giving directives, managing conflict talk and making final decision in official circumstances.
In this discussion section, I will compare or contrast this analysis with other article written by Morand entitled Language and power: an empirical analysis of linguistic strategies used in superior-subordinate communication (2000). The basic concept of both articles, between Pan and Morand, emphasise the same area of interesting topic, language and power, and how in turn, significantly contribute to the use of politeness strategies. From my perspective, I found how these studies relate to but to some points, differ from one to another. For example in term of methodology applied in conducting the research and the area of speech acts critically analysed, they vary.
The general findings of both articles remarkably highlight that power is communicated through specific linguistic behaviour. They suggest that the higher social rank of a person in society, it seems that he/she tends to use bald-on-record strategies in interaction. Morand (2000) exemplified in request speech act. Accordingly, a superior is more direct in doing so. Similarly, Pan’s investigation notes that the higher of official rank of a person, the barer imperative in such as giving directive, managing conflict talk and making decisions. From these evidences, we can tentatively conclude that power certainly plays a significant role in determining politeness use.
Due to the both article differences, we can look at from discrete methodologies applied and the area of speech acts examined. As can be seen from the article, Morand uses the quantitative method in conducting language research. He proves that language research sheerly to qualitative research is also amenable in quantitative research. He conducts a laboratory study illustrating how power impacts the pattern of the speaker in using the politeness strategies. He involves eighty four Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg’s students, at Middletown, U.S.A in 2000. On the other side, Pan (1995), conversely to Morand, didn’t explicitly state what methodology applied in her research. But it has been apparent that her study is based on four tape-recorded government official meetings, each lasting from 1 hour to 1 hour and half in Foshan, a southern city in mainland China.
Concerning about the speech acts analysed in both studies, Morand and Pan have different areas of interest. Morand mainly focuses on the request and Pan critically analyses the distribution of power in three speech act categories: the nature of directive, management of conflict talk and decision-making process. Even thought they analyse distinct speech acts, but the general findings remarkably suggest the similarity: the distribution of power is more dominated by person’s position in society.
In theoretical framework issues, these articles take advantage of the influential politeness strategies theories proposed by Brown and Levinson. I, however, found something unique in each article. Only Pan’s article explains how power is valuable in Chinese social settings. Therefore, Pan looks at the historical perspective of power and how it is applicable in that hierarchical society. In my perspective, it is also crucial to present the historical perspective in looking at power so that’s why we can understand why a certain power is value in certain community and may be various in other cultures. In this interesting point, I will take as a part of my concern in my own literary review.
References:
Crystal, D. (2001), “A dictionary of language”, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
Morand, DA. (2000), Language and power: an empirical analysis of linguistic strategies used in superior-subordinate communication. Proquest, 235-248. Retrieved March 15, 2012, from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.flinders.edu.au/docview/224880733?accountid=10910.
Pan, Y. (1995), Power behind linguistic behaviour: analysis of politeness phenomena in Chinese official settings. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 462-481. Retrieved March 28, 2012, from http://jls.sagepub.com/content/14/4/462.